Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Erikson’s developmental theory for the stages of psychosocial development specifically draws focus to the influence of social interaction and relationships on learning. As foundation phase educators, we cannot disregard the importance of fostering relationships with our learners as well as learners having opportunities to foster meaningful relationships with their peers and the influence these relationships have on their learning. Meaningful relationships are crucial if our learners are to feel safe, valued, supported and cared for in our classrooms. It is, therefore, also necessary to have some knowledge of learning and developmental theories that emphasise and support this

With reference to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, foundation phase learners are at the fourth stage of industry vs. inferiority (ages 5-11). During this stage, children develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities through social interaction and relationships. Children, therefore, strongly rely on feedback from peers, teachers and parents to feel proud and confident about their abilities and achievements. As foundation phase educators, we, therefore, have an important role to play in our learners’ lives with regards to providing them with sufficient extrinsic motivation and encouragement with the aim of fostering feelings of competence, promoting their self-esteem and confidence. If children do not experience encouragement and praise for their successes during this stage of their development, they might consequently experience self-doubt and low self-esteem. During this fourth stage of their psychosocial development, foundation phase learners learn the skills required to cope with challenges as they develop their sense of competence, believe in their abilities and deal with and master various tasks and successfully solve problems

Piaget’s cognitive development theory

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development emphasises the notion that children learn by interacting with the world and that they build new knowledge based on existing skills and knowledge (prior knowledge). Piaget argues that one of the most important aspects to consider when referring to children’s cognitive development is to acknowledge that children think differently than adults. According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, foundation phase children fall between both the pre-operational stage (age 2-6; i.e. grade R) and the concrete operational stage (age 7-11; i.e. grade 1-3)

Vygotsky and the zone of proximal developmen

Vygotsky’s developmental theory draws attention to the socio-cultural factors that influence cognitive development and therefore emphasises the importance of social interaction and language development. According to Vygotsky, one cannot fully understand a child’s learning needs and developmental stage without taking their social environment as well as the influence of social factors on a personal level into consideration. Therefore, Vygotsky’s sociocultural view of cognitive development emphasises the interaction between individuals and their environments (Schunk, 2016; Woolfolk, 2016)

Vygotsky believed that the social environment influences cognition through tools and that adults teach these tools to children who then internalise these. Hence, cognitive change is a result of cultural tools acquired through social interactions and from internalisation and mental transformation (Schunk, 2016). Because of the emphasis Vygotsky places on the transference of knowledge within socio-cultural settings, the importance of language cannot be disregarded in cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that cultural development and thinking is mastered and transmitted through symbols relating to symbols and tools such as language, counting and writing and that it is an integral part of self-regulative abilities.

Musical development in the foundation phase

By the time children enter school, they have developed the ability to selectively listen, and directed listening increases on-task behaviour and listening duration (Sims, 2005; Werner, 2007). This is an extremely important development because it allows children to focus on specific musical aspects. Another form of "selective" listening also develops during this period, with children showing decreased openness to music of non-Western cultures (Gembris, 2006). In addition to the ability to selectively listen, children also develop other abilities during middle childhood. In terms of specific skills, children's sense of tonality increases, along with the ability to more accurately match pitch (Kenney, 1997). The advancements in motor coordination during the preschool period allow for increased fine and gross motor coordination during middle childhood, as well as an increased ability to demonstrate choreographed movements (Huang, 2007; Miyamoto, 2007). Increased motor control also leads to the ability to play certain instruments, especially simple melodic instruments such as the xylophone or keyboard (Frostik et al., n.d.). Singing abilities improve dramatically during the middle childhood years, with increases in both range and accuracy noted (Kim, 2000). By the age of 6 or 7 years, children have a vocal range of approximately one octave, with all its steps (Gembris, 2006). Improvements in rhythmic abilities are noted as well; school-aged children show the ability to demonstrate rhythms in an increasing number of modalities, including clapping, tapping, moving, and chanting (Huang, 2007; Loong & Lineburgh, 2000). Perhaps two of the most significant developments to occur during middle childhood are in the areas of coordination and music reading. First and foremost, children show an increasing ability to accurately coordinate various musical aspects (Warrener, 1985). This allows for greater participation in a variety of musical endeavors. Finally, starting around the age of 5, children develop the ability to associate sound with symbols (Miyamoto, 2007). Therefore, it has been suggested that children can begin to note-read around the age of 6 (Kenney, 1997)