1) Decision making is the process of selecting from a set of alternatives. All decision making processes produce consequence that may be an action, recommendation, or opinion. Decision making consists of four parts namely; Defining the problem, gathering information, generating alternatives or options, choosing a direction or course of action.

The manager is responsible as a leader in decision making depending on the different types of decision according to the certain character of the problem encountered. Employees involvement in decision making grants an opportunity for employee to share their opinion and knowledge which gives them a less role to play as they only provide their perspective.both parties managers and employees consider a means of solving a problem and the level of danger involved when making a decision.

2. Discuss the conditions of certainty, risk, and uncertainty under which decisions are made.

Certainty

it is the true conditions under which the individuals involved have complete information about the problem and other possible solutions are known, and they are likely to achieve the same outcome from each solution clearly. Example is the decision to reorder inventory automatically when stock falls below determined level.

Risk

Exist when the individual has some information regarding the outcome of the decisions but they do not know everything when it comes too making decisions under conditions of risks, managers may find it helpful to use probability.

Probability is a percentage of times that a specific outcome occurs, if someone was to make a certain decision many times

Objective probability- it is the possibility that certain solutions will happen based on proven facts and numbers.

Subjective probability- is the certainty that a specific outcome will happen based on personal judgements and beliefs of people.

Uncertainty

Exist when probability of various results are not known, the manager feels unable to assign estimates to any of the alternatives. While the situation may seem hopeless mathematical technologies have been created to help the decision makers. An example is when there are heavy quantitative in nature and are outside the scope of our present consideration.

3. Describe the characteristics of routine, adaptive, and innovative decisions

Routine decisions

Standard choices are made in response, to regularly taken and answers are obvious to you and also require no or little consideration of an alternative. An example   from the world of business would be to restock on office material when components are low  another example is when you can determine to wear garments when you go backyard of your house.

Adaptive decisions

Improving upon previous persuits choices and practices. Options are made in response to a mixture of pretty unusual and uncommon issues with alternative solutions, e.g. sheltered investors unfold dangers with a balanced portfolio of stocks, bonds and cash. If an instant decision is not integral and there is time to advance choices.

Innovative decisions

Choices are based on the discovery, identification and analysis of unusual and ambiguous troubles and the improvement of special innovative solutions. Solutions involves a series of small interrelated  selections made over a duration of months or even years. An example, is when a subscription song carrier approves paying users to stream  unlimited music on their computer systems and phones. Launched at a time when piracy used to be at a high level, and  human beings have been reluctant to pay above the odds to download music, the provider addressed a clear market, and supplied humans an affordable and revolutionary way to enjoy high quantities of music, without having to resort to illegal downloads. 

4. How goals affect decision making.

-Goals are results in giving employees managers and organisations a sense of order directions and managing.

Nature of goals

-Goals are results to be obtained, they indicate the  direction in which decisions and actions should be aimed. Clear and unambiguous goals specify the quantity of the desire results.

Aim of setting goals 

-Goals provide one or an organisation visions and help allocate time for individuals to make it to their goal.

-Goals help with guidance and directions.

-Organisations control performance if they have goals set to attain.

-Goals also help to focus individually and organisational decision and efforts.

-Goals help in the planning process

General and Operational Goals

-General goals provide a wider direction for decision making in qualitative terms.

-Operational goals states the achievement results in quantitative terms , for example, an organisation's goal an be increase the sales turnover by the end of 2019.

Role of Stakeholders 

-Stakeholders are customers, shareholders, suppliers etc. They have an impact  on an organisation and its employees.

-Stakeholders role is to make demands. Demands are the desires expressed by powerful stakeholders that an organisation make certain decisions and achieve particular goals.

Constraints-limits the type of goals set, the decision made and actions taken. Two crucial constraints are laws and ethics.

Choices-are goals and back-up plans that organisations and individuals are free to select but do not have to select.

Balanced scorecard - keep tabs on the key elements on the organisations implementation by considering both internal and external stakeholders  points of views. It does this by looking at the organisational from strategic approach from four perspectives:

-The financial perspective, financial goals that we have and will they impact our organisation.

-The customer perspective, what is important to our customers which will in return impact the organisations finances.

-The internal process perspective, what goals do we need in order to meet our customers goals that will impact our financial standing.

-The learning and growth perspective, skills and culture and capabilities needed to execute the process to please our customers and impact finances.

5) Differentiate between the rational, bounded rationality, and political models of decision making.

Rational model

- This model of decision making is a 7 step prescriptive model that tells how the decisiom should be made when making routine decisions in situations involving conditions of near certainty or low risk.

7- steps

1. Identifying a problem or opportunity

2. Gathering information

3. Analyzing the situation

4. Developing options

5. Evaluating options

6. Selecting a preferred alternatives\

7. Acting on the decision

- It is also assumes that  people will make choices that maximize benefits and minimize any costs.

2) Bounded rationality model 

It is useful because it emphasises the limitations of rationality and thus provides a better picture of the day to day decision making processes used must people

Satisfining:

- When selecting an acceptable goal/alternative solution 

- Acceptable goal might be easier to identify and achieve

>Examples;

Game strategy 

Management science

Administration

Chess is a board game that involves strategy building and analyzing the opponents next move in order to take the decision of your next move. 

The political model

the political approach to decision making takes what the rational and practical models left out and posts that any organizational activity is a political and ideological activity, in other words, the political  approach to decision making extends our vision in terms of  understanding agency and social factors.

*Power -the ability to influence or control.

 *Scapegoating -casting blame for problems on innocent. 

*Co-optation -means of averting threats.

Factors influencing political decision making.

*Stakeholders

*Choice of goals

*Alternative solutions