SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 12

THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY:

STUDY UNIT: 7

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

11 JUNE 2021

1. Introduction

The effects of the state of the environment, sustainable development, social, and environmental social justice do, by no means exist in mutual exclusivity. Indeed, it can be shown that these concepts are quite interrelated and interwoven with each other. Herein will lead a brief discussion on what exactly is meant by social and environmental social justice, and how this manifest in three practical examples form the South African context. Additionally, the current state of the South African environment and social justice will be reflected upon. As a starting point, however, a brief overview of what social and environmental justice is.

2. What is social justice?

In essence, social justice is about the equal rights of all citizens, as well as the equal distribution of social resources and the structural enhancement of indiscriminatory access to, and ability to obtain social goods and services (Calma et al., 2011:10). Additionally, the equal redistribution process requires a policy framework that advances social inclusion via more equal levels of income (Calma et al., 2011:10), and, by extension, the subsequent equal access to social goods and services.

3. What is environmental social justice?

Environmental social justice boils down to two underpinnings. Firstly, environmental social justice focusses on the fact that environmental sustainability has a direct baring on sustainable labour. Indeed Räthzel (2018:512) states that “[the] destruction [of nature] constitutes a threat to the health of workers” and that “Nature needs to be protected because its destruction threatens workers”.

Secondly, it can be surmised that environmental social justice seeks to achieve social justice through environmental justice emanating from sustainable development. What this means, is that if policy frameworks aim to transition form a carbon-based economy (non-sustainable) to a low-carbon economy, sustainable development will follow and thus have a positive effect on labour thus cascading into social equality, the addressing of past inequalities and ultimately, social justice (Rathzel, 2018:10).

4. The water and energy crises in South Africa

The water challenge currently faced by South Africa is that, according to Köhler (2016:3), the total amount of usage exceeds the average amount of rainfall per annum and the estimated evaporation in the country exceeds the total amount of precipitation as well. Additionally, there exists not only a problematic amount of widespread water pollution, but also an excessive reliance upon water by the country’s economy (Köhler, 2016:8), as well as a structural deficit in understanding of the precise origin of this dependency within the economy, and the corresponding policy to address it.

In short, the energy crisis is described by Sarkodie and Adams (2020:458) as the existence of largescale inequality in access to electricity resulting from existing inequality in income and income distribution, which then cascades into a heavy reliance upon alternative, pollutive sources of energy causing significant increases in environmental sustainability and quality of human life.

5. Poverty alleviation through the wetland project

The wetland project had been intended to alleviate poverty in two ways. Firstly, the work that had been conducted was reserved for mainly unemployed residents of the specific areas in which the wetlands had been restored; and secondly through providing these labourers with basic training which would help them to access the labour market more easily for future employment opportunities (Zabala & Sullivan, 2017:11).

6. State of the environment

Objectively, the current state of affairs in South Africa with regards to the environment and social justice, is less than ideal. According to Sishutu (2015:521-522) not only is South Africa’s environment being destabilised by, among others, the current energy crisis, but also by the continued, largescale exploitation and destruction of natural resources by the existing, carbon-based, accumulative-capitalistic economy. Additionally, there exists a marked disparity between the levels of access to energy among the different segments of the South African population, and particularly to the detriment of the impoverished and disadvantaged (Sarkodie & Adams, 2018:456 & 457; Sishutu, 2015:522). Thus, it may be reasonably inferred that, based on the continuous capitalistic economic exploitation of the environment, and the profound intersegmental discrepancies in the distribution of and access to energy, the current state of the environment in South Africa is at a crisis point (Räthzel, 2015:504), and that social and environmental social justice is at an all-time low and in urgent need of systemic attention and improvement.

7. Conclusion

Thus, it had been shown, through the examples of the South African water and energy crises, that social justice and social environmental justice may be seen as interrelated and interdependent. Additionally, is had been illustrated that South Africa is currently in a state of crisis with regards to its environment as well as social and environmental justices and in need of serious policy and structural change.

8. Reference List

Calma, T., Baldry, E., Briskman, L. & Disney, J. 2011. What is Social Justice? Occasional Paper 1. National Pro Bono Resource Centre.

Köhler, M. 2016. Confronting South Africa’s water challenge: a decomposition analysis of water intensity. SAEF Working Paper, No. 2016/01/01.

Räthzel, N., Cock, J. & Uzzell, D. 2018. Beyond the nature–labour divide: trade union responses to climate change in South Africa. Globalizations, 15(4): 504-519.

Sarkodie, S.A. & Adams, S. 2020. Electricity access, human development index, governance and income inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy Reports, 6(1): 255-466.

Sishutu, B. 2015. Environment. In: Steward, P. & Zaaiman, J., eds. Sociology: a South African introduction. Cape Town: Juta. pp. 509-529.

Zabala, A & Sullivan, C. 2017. Multilevel assessment of a large-scale program for poverty alleviation and wetland conservation: lessons from South Africa. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 61(3): 1-22.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 11

THE ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY:

STUDY UNIT: 7

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

04 JUNE 2021

1. Introduction

Although the environment plays a substantial role in the functioning of society, it often happens that this fact remains unnoticed. Herein will be discussed briefly the four main narratives in environmental awareness and perception, as well as how these may be applied to the South African context. Additionally, there will be made mention of the two most pronounced environmental discourses in South Africa today - sustainable development and environmental racism and justice – and how sustainable development plays a role in modern South African environmental policy. As a starting point, however, a brief overview of the four environmental narratives and whether and how these apply to the South African context.

2. Main environmental narratives

According to Sishutu (2015:514) the four main environmental narratives comprise of the conservation, economic, non-state agent, and local, community views.

1. 1. The Conservation view of the environment holds that public environmental resources which are threatened ought to be ceased by an authoritarian agent (typically the State) and be made accessible to only a select few (Sishutu, 2015:514). This view may arguably also be based on the aftermath of what is refer to by Sishutu (2015:514) as the “tragedy of the commons thesis”.

1. 2. The Economic view of the environment holds that the environment and its natural resource serve as an inexhaustible object of human utilisation and exploitation (Sishutu, 2015:515). Additionally, the commodity that is the environment is often typically also reserved for “a select and privileged few” (Sishutu, 2015:515).

1. 3. The Non-State Agent view of the environment normally emanates from the interests of external, non-governmental parties, and often manifests in the form of an adamant, intrinsically motivated belief in the non-anthropocentric, accountable attitude toward the environment (Sishutu, 2015:515).

1. 4. Local community views, unlike the other, prominent environmental narratives, vary substantially based on socioeconomic and geo-political setting and circumstance. Indeed Sishutu (2015:216) writes to this precise effect by stating that these perspectives may be “highly differentiated” and are based on the “distribution of power”, “geographical area” and “ecological dynamics” among various others.

3. Contribution to the South African view of the environment

The understanding of the environment in South Africa may be a somewhat peculiar case. Given the country’s political and socioeconomic history, it would be reasonable to say that one need carefully consider how the events of the past, in conjunction with the happenings of the present actively shape the view of the environment held by it. Certainly, and as noted by Sishutu (2015:514), South Africa has had some encounters with the underpinning themes of the Conservation environmental narrative that may very well have had a baring on the view of the environment that developed in the country over time. However, whether this narrative continues to actively shape the South African view of the environment is doubtful, as the various conservational institutions long ago established are no longer reserved for a select group or segment of the population thanks to the constitutionally sanctioned, equal rights of all South Africans. Thus, the role this particular narrative plays in the contemporary view of the environment is somewhat reserved to the influence it had in the past and how this translates into the present. On the other hand, the Economic narrative may be seen as still having an active influence on the view of the environment held in South Africa. As pointed out by Sishutu (2015:515), the South African government granted permission to an Australian mining company to commence with their plans for mining on the Wild Coast despite the fact that this area is regarded as an “ecologically rich, diverse and sensitive coastal zone”. This could very well be seen as an example of how the environment has hitherto been seen as a commodity that is to be exploited – but not necessarily to the benefit of the entire citizenry, as the above example aptly illustrates. Similarly, the Non-State Agent narrative may also be actively shaping the way in which the environment is regarded in South Africa, with environmentalism campaigns against rhino-poaching, mining on the Wild Coast, and hydraulic fracking in the Karoo (Sishutu, 2015:521) exhibiting a strong presence of environmental activism arguably emanating from this very narrative which is evidently prominent in various communities across the country.

Lastly, it would be reasonable to argue that the Community-Specific view of the environment will remain an active, shaping narrative in South Africa regardless of locality or socioeconomic, geo-political circumstances. Whether or not the overhauling majority of a community is dependent on the environment for its livelihood (Sishutu, 2015:516), there will exist a view or perspective of the environment, nonetheless. In other words, the view of the environment may vary substantially from one community or geographic location to another based on how much each individual community depends upon it, but a view of the environment there will continue to exist irrespective.

4. Environmental discourses in South Africa

The two main discourses in South Africa include that of sustainable development, and environmental racism and justice (Sishutu, 2015:516). The former, in essence, revolves around the idea that humans ought to develop society in such a way and trajectory that it does not compromise the ability of future generations of humans to access and utilise environmental resources for their own purposes (Sishutu, 2015:516); whilst the latter focuses on the systemic and “institutionalised racial discrimination in environmental policy, regulation and practices which deliberately locates  toxic waste sites and industrial facilities in poor minority neighbourhoods” (Sishutu, 2015:519).

5. Sustainable development in South Africa

The sustainable development discourse has a definite effect on South African policy, as Upadhyaya et al. (2018:187) confirms that indeed South Africa, along with India and Brazil, forms part of an international, environmental policy-framework initiative called NAMA (Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions), which is aimed at facilitating drastic climate-action and relies upon the individual, nationally determined contributions (NDCs). According to Upadhyaya et al. (2018:188), South Africa has acted in the form of formulating its National Climate Change Response White Paper. This serves as sufficient enough evidence that the environmental discourse of sustainable development does indeed influence environmental policy in South Africa.

6. Conclusion

As such, not only has the four, distinct environmental narratives and their relevance to the SA-context been shown, but also the two most important, contemporary environmental discourses in South Africa and how sustainable development, being one of these, has been shown as having a definite impact on South African environmental policy.

7. Reference list

Prabhat, U., Mathias, F., Bjorn-Ola, L. & Mikael, R. 2018. Comparing climate policy processes in India, Brazil, and South Africa: domestic engagements with international climate policy frameworks. Journal of Environment & Development, 27(2): 186–209.

Sishutu, B. 2015. Environment. In: Steward, P. & Zaaiman, J., eds. Sociology: a South African introduction. Cape Town: Juta. pp. 509-529.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 10

ENVIRONMENTAL THEORIES:

STUDY UNIT: 6

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

21 MAY 2021

1. Introduction

Various theories within the history of Sociology have been offered on all the possible factors influencing human society and its development. Herein will briefly be discussed some of the classic theories that focus on the environment as chief influence and impetus behind societal progress, as well as on how these may be applied to the South African context.

2. Geographical Determinism

According to proponents of the theory of Geographical Determinism, the development and progression of societies can both be attributed to their geographic location and specific characteristics such as climate, as well as inversely explained by it (Hannigan, 2006:1-2). As such, Geographical Determinism may be seen as a single-factor theory that can be criticised as placing too much emphasis on geographic location and the possible correlations between geographic location and development (Hannigan, 2006:2).

3. Biological Determinism

Biological Determinism, according to Hannigan (2006:2), holds that the development, and more specifically progress, of societies may not be ascribed to social reform inasmuch as biological Darwinism. It is argued that progress in society, like that of entire biological species in principle, depend on the successive, intergenerational efforts of individuals within these societies (Hannigan, 2006:2). Society’s continual development is thus theorised to gradually take place, similarly to the process of Darwinian Evolution. Individuals who succeed within society by whatever means (usually merciless tactics), are theorised as both the products of their like-minded, like-mannered predecessors, as well as the intergenerational driving force behind societal progress. Similar to Geographical Determinism, Biological Determinism may thus be seen as single-factored (Hannigan, 2006:2), and additionally renders the cause-and-effect relation of societal development entirely out of human control – the latter points of which brings the discussion to the very different, yet nonetheless relevant theory of development namely Modernisation Theory.

4. Modernisation Theory

Modernisation Theory argues, inter alia, that countries underdeveloped exist because they essentially need to catch up with other, developed countries by using the latter’s economic and developmental practices and methodologies (Matunhu, 2011:65-66), and that technology and innovation act as a significant driving force for progress and the paramount transition of these underdeveloped countries necessary to facilitate their development (Shareira, 2015:79). As such, it would appear that the environment and environmental forces are largely dismissed when it comes to the process of development or viewed as inconsequential obstacles in the way of societal progress that need be overcome. However, contrasting this may seem with the current theme of discussion, this view may be particularly useful in evaluating, for instance, a society’s response to the environment (and its consequential treatment thereof), as well its response to environmental disasters. This will be illustrated in the final section of this discussion by applying the above-mentioned theories to the South African context.

5. Application to the South African context

If one were to apply these theories to South Africa, one would argue that, because of its geographic location at the Southern tip of Africa, the climate could be regarded as generally favourable for agricultural activities rarely reaching any climate extremities. This, according to the combined underpinnings of Geographical and Biological Determinism, would arguably cascade into both the successful development of a functional society, as well as the progressive success of that society over time. Agricultural infrastructure is established, thus successfully leading to a steadily growing population, continuous and growing division of specialised and specialising labour, the growing of economic activities, and ultimately a continuously progressing and developing society. This illustrates, albeit in a rudimental way, how the theories of Geographical and Biological Determinism may be applied to the South African context in order to illustrate their underlying, theoretical premises. In terms of Modernisation Theory, how the environment is viewed or thought of, could, as mentioned, yield potential insights into the driving force behind technological innovation in South Africa, as well as its responses to environmental disasters such as droughts, for instance. If the environment is generally seen as something that ought to be beaten, then this could possibly have a powerful effect on the motivation for the search of new technologies and infrastructure that could not only push society forward, but also contribute to the ease with which natural disasters are circumvented and managed.

6. Conclusion

Thus, the environment has been shown as a substantial, theorised influence on the trajectory of progress and development of human society. However, single factor theories such as Geographical and Biological Determinism should be considered as integrative parts of the proverbial bigger picture of human societal development both past, present, and future.  

7. Reference list  

Hannigan, J. 2006. Environmental sociology: a social constructivist perspective. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Routledge.

Matunhu, J. 2011. A critique of modernization and dependency theories in Africa: critical assessment. African Journal of History and Culture 3(5): 65-72.

Shareira, B.F. 2015. Theories of Development. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 2(1): 78-90.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 9

ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS:

STUDY UNIT: 6

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

14 MAY 2021

1. Introduction

Environmental problems pose a particularly malicious threat to humans and human societies. However, what we as humans often overlook, is that environmental problems are significantly less exogeneous to human society in nature than we realise. Herein will thus lead a discussion on the anthropogenic nature of environmental problems and how these problems need to be evaluated in order to determine their anthropogenic nature, accompanied by an example from the South African context. First, however, a brief overview of the criteria that makes an environmental problem a social problem and thus anthropogenic in nature.

2. Defining environmental problems

What is it that makes an environmental problem anthropogenic? According to Charon and Vigilent (2008:6), social problems typically possess three characteristics: 1) their causes are social in nature (a social or anthropogenic aetiology); 2) they possess the capacity to do harm to great multitudes of people; and 3) they pose a threat to the existing structures, continuity, and perception of a society. Parrillo (2019:5) contends much the same but adds an additional criterion which revolves around the problem in question standing in contrast with the socially dominant group’s values, norms, or standards.

As such, if one were to look at the contemporary array of environmental problems such as global warming (and its subsequent climate change), water pollution, ocean acidification and destruction of habitat both aquatic (corral reefs) and terrestrial (deforestation), it becomes easy to see that a great number of the pressing environmental problems human society faces are, indeed, anthropogenic in nature. In other words, these problems are by and large the direct consequence of human activity (industrialisation, trading, development and urbanisation, agricultural expansion etc.). Thus, this fits the first, social-aetiological criterion of social problems. Secondly, it is reasonable to assume that global warming, ozone depletion or the depletion of drinkable water, for instance, would arguably both negatively affect vast multitudes of people across the world, and pose a serious threat to the continuity of human society as such, as well as its existing structures, norms, and values. It then becomes quite evident that environmental problems can be seen as anthropogenic in nature when applied to the same criteria according to which social problems are judged and classified as such.

3. Application to an example from the South African context

If the above were to be applied to an example from South Africa, the abound polluting of the country’s sources of freshwater by raw sewerage and urban and industrial refuse could be of particular relevance. Logically speaking, if the existing freshwater resources of a water scarce country are being polluted and rendered otherwise undrinkable, it would indisputably pose a substantial threat to both the entire population, as well as the continuity of the entire national society. Diseases such as cholera and malaria would pose a great risk to the health of citizens; water shortages in isolated settlements would be life-threatening; and the inability for the agricultural sector to secure usable water for livestock and crops would endanger national food security and nutrition thus opening up a wide variety of other problems. As such, anthropogenic environmental problems can have potentially devastating consequences for a country’s people as is evident in this example.

4. Conclusion

Thus, environmental problems are more often than not anthropogenic in nature, and as a result may be seen and thought of as social problems as well – given that they match the criteria according to which these problems are judged. However, it must also be said that although many environmental problems threatening human society are anthropogenic in nature, not all problems emanating from the environment exist as a result of human activity. Volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, and tsunamis are just a few of the natural disasters that occur well outside of the realms of human control. As such it is thus especially important to utilise the above-mentioned criteria of a social problem when attempting to determine whether a problem originating from the environment is anthropogenic in nature or not.

5. Reference list

Charon, J.M. & Vigilant, L.G. 2008. Social problems: Readings with four questions. 3rd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Parrillo, V.N. 2019. Contemporary social problems. 6th ed. Hoboken, NJ: Prentice Hall.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 8

DEVELOPMENT, A DIFFERENT APPROACH:

STUDY UNIT: 5

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

08 MAY 2021

1. Introduction

Development as concept and practice may have a variety of differing forms and modi operandi. Not least among them is what’s referred to as the Humanistic approach, which in itself contains, inter alia, the Participatory developmental approach. Herein will lead a brief discussion of this particular approach to community development and how this can be applied to a practical example within the South African context.

2. Participatory community development

Participatory development, as mentioned earlier, belongs to the Humanistic school of thought, and centres around the participation of the actual community in question in the decision-making process and management of crucial developmental resources. Participatory development also functions mainly on the bottom-up method of development, which revolves around the community members expressing their own subjective views on development within the community as well as on the routes through which development should take place. In doing so, the community (or subordinate groups) are exerting pressure on the “top” (dominant or ruling groups) as to how development should unfold and be managed (Isidiho & Sabran, 2016:270; Korten, 1987:148).

Participatory development, especially with regard to policy formulation and implementation, is characterised by the formulating or implementing entities or institutions engaging in consultation with the members (often the elites) of the community in question in order to gain their approval. This would logically simplify the entire implementation process as the members of the community also had input in the formulation process that’ll ensure their interests are addressed and not merely the interests of the policy holders that are merely being imposed upon the community without their consent or approval. In conjunction with this, when it comes to developmental projects intended for a community, its members will often be given the freedom to choose which project will be undertaken from a list of projects presented them by the experts involved (Isidiho & Sabran, 2016:270).

Furthermore, the participatory approach to development enables community members to undergo a shift from being passive recipients of external policy changes and ideological decisions, to becoming active participants in leading the way in which development will take place within their community (Isidiho & Sabran, 2016:270). As such, participatory development also aims at enabling the members of a society or community to mobilise and rely upon themselves for both the development of their community, as well as for the allocation and management of the local resources required for said development (Isidiho & Sabran, 2016:270-271).

Incidentally, the types of non-governmental organisations involved in participatory development (specifically in terms of the implementation of developmental projects etc.) would arguably require second and third generation NGO orientation and organisational structure, as the putting in place of self-support structures for the community (second generation NGO), and involvement of the NGOs with the institutions and bodies responsible for both policy formulation and implementation (third generation), as well as the management the resources required for said development, would logically be of paramount importance Korten, 1987:148-149).

3. Example from the SA context

An example of participatory development within South Africa, would be the Thusong Service Centres built by the South African government to serve the purpose of building and improving communication between the government (top) and the members of the community (bottom or grassroots) in which each centre is built. These centres provide both information about government and government services, as well as an opportunity for citizens (members of the community) to enter into dialogue with government to, for example, voice their concerns about the quality of services rendered by the government, or possible areas of improvement in the specific community or area.

Not only does this example manifest the attempt at establishing communication between the benefactor and beneficiary as mentioned earlier, but also the attempt to include and place the community members as the centre of development in their own communities.

4. Conclusion

Thus, the participatory approach to development has been shown as placing the persons of the community members at the centre of the development process and integrating them in all aspects of said development – from planning to implementation.

5. Reference list  

Isidiho, A.O. & Sabran, M.S.B. 2016. Evaluating the Top-Bottom and Bottom-Up Community Development Approaches:  Mixed Method Approach as Alternative for Rural Un-Educated Communities in Developing Countries. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 7(4): 266-273.

Korten, D.C. 1987. Third Generation NGO Strategies: A Key to People-centered [sic] Development. World Development: 15(1): 145-159.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 7

WOMEN IN DEVELOPMENT:

STUDY UNIT: 4

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

08 MAY 2021

1. Introduction

The role and significance of women in development has arguably been largely overlooked or even disregarded in even the recent past. However, there may be some significant change on the proverbial horizon. Herein will lead a brief discussion on an organisation called Women in Development (WID) and how it is working tirelessly on improving women’s role in both development, and society at large.

2. Women in development

This non-governmental organisation aims at making women an integral part of development – both in practice and theory. It seeks to acknowledge women’s roles in development and how they have been systemically overlooked and excluded within development research and practices. Additionally, WID seeks acknowledgment and rectification of women’s long-held subordinate position within the patriarchy and the view they have been labelled with as mere reproductive agents. This is largely accomplished through their efforts to promote the advancement of women within the economy and occupational field.

WID utilises the egalitarian ideology of equal genders and equal gender rights and opportunities in order to establish women’s place and significance within development and the developmental process. In other words, providing women with an equal chance at advancing within the field of occupation and thus manifest for the first time the truly important role they play in development and developmental processes.

3. WID in the South African context

An apt example of how women are empowered in South Africa, is the standardised practice for women to be given priority when it comes to the hiring of top-level management as well as leadership positions. In doing so, women are thus given equal opportunity for economic advancement, and thus also the opportunity to not only flourish and prosper within their own right, but to occupy their rightful, equally significant roles within the development of the economy and society at large.

4. Conclusion

Thus, it may be concluded that the oppressive and restricting roles occupied by generations of women within both development (in the form of not acknowledging their significant role therein), and society (in the form of being viewed as little more than agents of reproduction) is finally being challenged on not just a societal level, but on structural level as well.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6

DEVELOPMENT:

STUDY UNIT: 3

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

24 APRIL 2021

1. Introduction

Herein will lead a brief comparison and contrast of the basic underlying principles and key focus areas of Modernisation and Dependency theories.

2. Modernisation and Dependency theories

In essence, Modernisation and Dependency theories differ in that the former holds that impoverished nations are so because they have yet to adopt the economic processes (industrialisation, free market, etc.) practiced in the West and show internal cultural and structural resistance to this; whilst the latter focusses on the poverty of nation states as being the consequence of the abrupt withdrawal of support of support from former-colonising countries, thus forcing them to continually rely on the exploitative trading practices with these former-colonising countries as a form of neo-colonialism (Ferrante, 2014:194-198; Ferrante, 2016:89-92).

Furthermore, the key focus of Modernisation theory is situated in the internal, cultural, and political changes and subsequent, seemingly necessary adoption of, and adaptation to Western economic principles and practices. On the other hand, Dependency theory functions on a social-periphery principle that emphasises the whole society as an entity situated in, and at subsequent odds with, the periphery of the (presumably) former-colonising countries or exploitative, multinational corporations or entities (Shareia, 2015:80). Additionally, Modernisation theory focuses on the structural changes required from underdeveloped nations by means of a procession of successive stages of phases, whereas Dependency theory places more emphasis on the differences between nations – more specifically in terms of economy and level of development, and between more, and less-developed countries (usually former colonies and their former-colonising countries) (Shareia, 2015:80).

Lastly, Modernisation theory is considered a predominantly Western-centric theory and metric of economic development, whereas Dependency theory developed among under-developed countries (Shareia, 2015:80).

3. Conclusion

Thus, it has been briefly shown that there exists a noticeable difference between some of the core tenants of Modernisation and Dependency theories.

4. Reference list

Ferrante, J. 2014. Sociology: a global perspective. Hampshire, UK: Cengage Learning.

Ferrante, J. 2016. Sociology: a South African perspective. Hampshire, UK: Cengage Learning.

Shareia, B.F. 2015. Theories of development. International Journal of Language and Linguistics, 2(1): 78-90.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 5

DEVELOPMENT:

STUDY UNIT: 3

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

16 APRIL 2021

1. Introduction

Development, especially in terms of in a national scale, can be measured and characterised by a variety of phenomena. Herein will lead a brief discussion of four of the characteristics typically presented by countries with, or in developing economies additionally how these may present in the South African context.

2. Political transformation

Developing may often be characterised by political change or transformation Khambampati (2004:14). What is meant by this, is that developing countries often exhibit a marked change in political orientation in terms the political freedom its citizens. This is often found in the shifts toward democracy, which in own turns is used as a sort of measuring stick for development, as it is underscored by the political mobility and freedom of the citizenry. In the South African context, this can be seen in the fact that there exists a fully democratic State, democratic elections, and a democratically underscored constitution providing things such as freedom of speech and the prohibiting of censure.

3. Modernisation

The level of modernisation found in a country is strongly indicative of its level of development Khambampati (2004:13). What this means, is that countries with lower levels of development are characterised by strong traditionally oriented societies’ and social interactions, as well as extra-economic distinctions among its citizens such as class and caste systems strong and linguistic and religious categorisation ideologies. In terms of South Africa, this can be seen to some extent when one looks at the relatively strong class system existing among its citizenry. Although this is base predominantly on socio-economic status, the underlying factors that influence the socio-economic status of South Africans can nonetheless not be excluded from discussion when it comes to the level of modernisation exhibited in our country.

4. Growth and structural change

Khambampati (2004:13) elaborates growth and structural change as characterised by 1) a substantial proportion of a (developing) country’s population is involved in activities either centring around the primary sector and/or of a non-manufacturing nature, and 2) a large proportion of the GNP is produced within the primary (specifically agricultural) sector. As such, if South Africa were to be regarded as such, there would be a staggering amount of South African working of farms (either commercial or sustenance) and the majority of our country’s Gross Domestic Product would emerge from the primary (agricultural) sector, in stead of the other productive, secondary sectors of the economy.

5. Distributive equity

Khambampati (2004:13) postulates that the disparities in the distribution of the GDP within economically developed countries are substantially small and relatively equal. As such, distributive equity as indicator of national development in South Africa would (depending on the level of development) either indicate a relatively equal GDP per capita in the case of higher development; or, conversely, a very marginalising distribution of the Gross Domestic product among citizens in the case of lower level of existing development. Incidentally, it is interesting to see that the distribution of a nation’s wealth – when measuring said nation’s level of development, that is – is measured on the basis of continuum, rather than category. This suggests that development (or at least the measuring thereof) is a continuous process rather than a staged one.

6. Conclusion

Thus, in a brief and rather rudimentary way, the development of a country has been shown as measurable. Instead of sticking to a one-sided ideology of economic growth, GDP and GDP per capita as measurements of development, contemporary thought and academic inquiry may very well expand the view of development as principle to support a more inclusive, holistic perspective – one in which there may be more clear and accurate measurements of not only national development, but human development as a whole.      

7. Reference List

Khambampati, U.S. 2004. Development and the developing world. Malden, MA: Polity Press.

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4

POVERTY:

STUDY UNIT: 2

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

26 MARCH 2021

1. Introduction

Poverty can often be difficult to define. However, as will be shown, poverty in itself may manifest in two different ways, which in own turn gives poverty two different faces whose definitions vary considerably. Yet notwithstanding this, both these differing definitions could possibly be integrated to form a more complete, more holistic definition of poverty as phenomenon.

2. Defining poverty

Poverty as such should be considered in a measure of degree, rather than in exclusive existential categories.

Two terms are often used in context of discussing poverty – absolute poverty, and relative poverty. Absolute poverty can be defined as a state of being in which an individual lacks the capacity to obtain adequately that which is essential to survival (Ferrante, 2014:182; Ferrante, 2016:83; Rohwerder, 2016:3). Relative poverty, on the other hand, is defined as poverty measured by what an individual has or lacks in relation to others in a particular society (Ferrante, 2014:182; Ferrante, 2016:83: Rohwerder, 2016:3).

It is easy to step into the pitfall of attempting to wholly define poverty exclusively in terms of either one of these two categories. However, this needn’t necessarily be the case. Indeed, one could adopt an eclectic or integrative view of sorts that uses both these proposed types of poverty as two parts of a single, somewhat flexible, duel-faceted definition.

3. Poverty defined

Poverty as such, should be considered in two mutually exclusive terms, which are poverty (absolute), and relative poverty. That is to say that poverty ought to first and foremost be thought of in absolute terms, and only thereafter - and in a lessening degree – relative terms or in relative, social comparison. As such, a new, integrated definition of poverty is thus offered:

Poverty can primarily be defined as the inability to adequately acquire the resources required for immediate, day-to-day survival; and secondarily, in a lesser degree, the adequate satisfaction of basic needs, but simultaneously an inability to procure that which considered standard in any specific society but has no impediment on survival in the case of deprivation.

By this definition it is made clear that poverty is exclusively viewed in terms of financial welfare and those resources necessary for survival. Thus, poverty begins with the inability to adequately satisfy the most basic of human needs, and subsequently lessens in degree to ultimately become a measure in relativity to others within a specific social setting.

4. Conclusion

Although it may have been briefly illustrated in a somewhat rudimentary way, poverty may very well be encapsulated in a single definition – given that this definition makes provision for any different forms in which poverty could present. Furthermore, it may be most effective to think of poverty in terms of degree and as a phenomenon characterised by varying definitions based on these measures of degree, rather than an absolute and universal existential category.

5. Reference list

Ferrante, J. 2014. Sociology: a global perspective. Hampshire, UK: Cengage Learning.

Ferrante, J. 2016. Sociology: a South African perspective. Hampshire, UK: Cengage Learning.

Rohwerder, B. (2016). Poverty and Inequality: Topic guide. Birmingham, UK: GSDRC, University of Birmingham.  

SOCY 211

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3

POVERTY:

STUDY UNIT: 2

LECTURER: MS. K. PHAJANE

J.E. COETZEE

33760845

TEL: 0795043183

19 MARCH 2021

1. Introduction

Poverty, although in general thought of negative in nature and detrimental to the impoverished, can be shown to possibly hold some slightly less obvious benefits to both the individual and the larger society.

2. The Functionalist approach to poverty

In order to evaluate the possible benefits of poverty to society and the individual, it is perhaps best to approach the matter from a functionalist point of view.

The first thing we as members of society notice about poverty, is its actual, visible manifestation; presumably so do the authorities and powers that be. Poverty is arguably first and foremost addressed by the State. As such, it is reasonable to argue that the visible manifestations of poverty could compel governments to act through things such as public policy formulation. These policies are created specifically with the purpose of counteracting poverty, which logically would benefit not only the larger society, but the individuals at odds as well. By turning the attention of the state or government to the condition of its impoverished citizens, poverty could likely also prompt the development of various types of social work aimed directly at improving the lives of the people who are suffering. Again, this indicates that poverty itself could benefit the individual South African. At a more societal level, severe poverty may in itself very well be a motivator for people to work hard, which in own turn would arguably strengthen and further develop the working force and subsequently have a substantially positive effect on the economy. Likewise, poverty may serve as a motivator for people to devote more attention and resources to the education of children. This, even in itself would not just have a positive impact on the larger society, but also change the lives of the children who are being educated in terms of their future socioeconomic prospects. Larger still, one could reasonably argue that widespread poverty could both motivate the development of philanthropic enterprises across the globe whilst simultaneously place the proverbial spotlight on humanitarian issues and what exactly can be done about them. In addition to this, poverty could possibly even stimulate a wide variety of research not only within the fields of medicine and the social sciences, but across a broad spectrum of scientific fields that could yield insights that could be invaluable to us in the combating of poverty among countless other things.

3. Conclusion

Thus, it can be said that poverty, when approached from a different angle, can become more than something that ails individuals and threatens the stability and continuity of society. It can, indeed, become impetus we need to find the answers these very problems.