Basic principles to keep in mind when planning a music lesson or a non-music lesson with music activities

One of the first things to keep in mind when planning a music lesson is that you should include as many opportunities as possible for learners to engage with and actively listen to, move to and create/perform music throughout the lesson. The CAPS for Creative Arts, performing arts in the foundation phase defines the following topics (please see the summary of CAPS topics and outcomes in the prescribed textbook, chapter 6)

The CAPS document further clearly indicates that the chosen performing arts topic (as defined within Creative Arts), must correlate with and support the Life Skills topic of the term and week. With this in mind, and by studying the performing arts topics, it becomes clear that foundation phase teachers are encouraged to include elements of play, to encourage creativity, discovery and collaboration and to apply arts integration strategies as often as possible in their teaching. It is further important to be aware of the fact that, although we focus on music in LSKM 221, performing arts include elements of both dance (movement) and drama as well. By utilising music (and performing arts) activities as much as possible in the foundation phase and by applying various arts integration activities and strategies (also refer to the theoretical framework for integrating music in the foundation phase, section 4.3), teachers are able to foster not only social and creative thinking skills but increase learners’ motivation for learning while also learning more about themselves. Through arts integration and play, learners are encouraged to be actively engaged in the teaching and learning process by allowing them to have fun while engaging in authentic, meaningful teaching and learning activities learning within social environments and to demonstrate their understanding practically through the arts. We also need to encourage young learners’ innate curiosity and love of music and the arts in our teaching if we want to design activities which will have real-life value for these learners while promoting holistic development, non-musical learning and personal and social wellbeing.

“When learners practice metacognition, the act of thinking about their thinking helps them make greater sense of their life experiences and start achieving at higher levels” (Price-Mitchell, 2015). When we enable learners to develop their metacognitive skills, they have the opportunity to make sense of their experiences and their learning and realise the value of their learning for their everyday lives. Metacognition is an important part of the learning process as purposeful reflection enables students (and learners) to not only think about their behaviour and experience, but to also decide what to do with these experiences, to determine how certain skills could benefit them, determine how to improve their teaching, and how to improve the learning experiences of their learners in order to meet their needs. If we teach in a compassionate way, take the needs of our students (and learners) into consideration and foster compassion among learners, we contribute towards a learning environment in which they can develop emotionally, intellectually and socially while also experiencing success and mental stability. Compassionate education could furthermore 99 enhance a learner’s resilience (Berkowicz & Myers, 2014). One of the main aims of compassionate educators is to educate the whole child by focusing not only on cognitive and intellectual development but also on teaching children to be more mindful, manage stress, have self-control, reflect, be self-aware, develop physically, connect with others and to ultimately contribute towards their positive wellbeing. Through compassionate education, foundation phase learners could learn to be more focused, become resilient, have empathy and foster meaningful interpersonal relationships with both peers and teachers (Compassionate Schools Project, 2019)

A few suggestions and food for thought when planning music lessons:

 There should always be music at the beginning and end of a lesson.  Never play music (YouTube or recordings) without a specific aim. Any music that is listened to in the class must contribute towards reaching the lesson aims. Tell learners what they must listen for or what they must do while listening when playing a song in class.  Always guide learners in music listening – give learners specific criteria, specify which music elements they should focus on, movement activities to perform or questions that they need to answer through the music listening activity.  Include a variety of teaching, learning and assessment activities in your lesson (do not plan a lesson where learners only listen to music, only play on instruments, only listen to explanations by the teacher).  A variety of activities (singing, moving, listening, performing, improvisation, composition, drawing, analysis, manipulating various materials and instruments, explore unconventional techniques in art and music, individual activities, group activities, debates, games etc.) in your lesson will contribute toward accommodating the various learning styles, abilities and interests of the learners;  Keep a basic “Introduction – Teaching and learning phase – Conclusion” structure in mind as this could assist you in planning teaching and learning activities that progress from lower to higher-order cognitive levels (less to more complex)  Give learners the opportunity to make sense of new concepts and skills on their own and collaboratively before giving the answers or explaining new ideas in a lecture format. Rather ask questions that prompt learners to find the answers – let them learn from each other while you, the teacher, act as a facilitator.  Consider the types and methods of assessment that you will use for each learning activity in the lesson. Assessment should be a continuous process, must support learning and should be present throughout any well-planned lesson.  Before you want to explain something, think about whether you could rather facilitate an activity to enable learners to discover the skills/knowledge themselves or whether you could rather ask an open question (think: social constructivist principles, problem-based learning, experiential learning) which will guide learner discovery;  Encourage learners to continuously reflect on their learning and engage in critical conversation about TL and assessment activities (so must you!);  Provide as many opportunities as possible for learners to engage in experiential, PBL and play-based TL and assessment activities;  Think about the role of assessment in your lesson;  Think about how the lesson content links to real-life as well as current social and political issues (this informs your pertinent question); and  Consider the importance of peer scaffolding

1. DEFINITION OF ARTS INTERGRATION

"When well planned and implemented, arts integration is one of the most effective ways for a wide range of students with a wide range of interests, aptitudes, styles, and experiences to form a community of active learners taking responsibility for and ownership of their own learning.

Arts integration promotes teaching and learning strategies which address outcomes in various subjects simultaneously while encouraging learners to demonstrate their understanding of concepts and skills through the arts. Arts integration is an approach to teaching, which promotes active engagement in teaching and learning activities, experiential learning, authentic learning activities, collaborative learning, problem-solving skills and reflection. It is important to note that, when designing arts integration activities, there must be a seamless integration of two or more subjects (Silverstein & Layne, 2010) (i.e. music and visual arts; music and language; music and maths; music and life skills) and that both subjects must be experienced and engaged with at the same time within an activity.

When we choose to apply arts integration principles in the foundation phase, we need to engage learners in teaching and learning activities which encourage them to draw on their prior knowledge with the aim of discovering new concepts and skills and to demonstrate their understanding in a practical way through the arts (Silverstein & Layne, 2010). Learners can, therefore, illustrate how music makes them feel by drawing a picture or writing a story. Learners can also, for example, demonstrate their understanding of the difference between rotation and revolution (when learning about planets, for example) by creating a dance. Arts integration activities promote active learning experiences through which foundation phase learners can internalise new knowledge and skills by engaging in authentic activities which have real-life value. Arts integration strategies offer learners the opportunity to learn in a way which prioritises in-depth understanding of new concepts and skills on a practical level before introducing abstract symbols – learners have to engage with authentic music activities (which include singing, moving, drawing what they hear in the music) before introducing music notation

The value of arts integration in the foundation phase

Arts integration has been proven to contribute towards higher motivation levels among learners and supports academic achievement and socialisation among learners. Schools that encourage teachers to apply arts integration strategies in their teaching have shown improved results with regards to learners’ mathematic performance as well as decreased disciplinary challenges. Arts integration provides teachers with the opportunity to promote and support the developmental needs of learners while offering learners the opportunity to engage in teaching and learning activities which are fun, fosters collaboration and connection and promotes learners’ innate curiosity, creativity and imaginative abilities. When foundation phase teachers utilise the arts throughout their teaching, they provide learners with multiple modes for demonstrating their understanding of non-arts outcomes while accommodating various learning styles and needs. Arts integration can lead to transformative experiences for both teachers and learners while fostering creative and imaginative capacities of the teachers and the learners alike. When learners are encouraged to demonstrate their understanding through the arts, we create teaching and learning environments in which individual learning needs and abilities are met. Through the application of arts integration teaching strategies, we design teaching and learning activities which are inclusive and provide multiple means of engaging with and internalising new knowledge and skills (accommodate various learning styles and preferences). Since arts integration encourages learners to demonstrate their understanding through the arts, learners have the opportunity to not only learn within safe, collaborative social environments but to demonstrate their understanding in ways and at a level which they are comfortable with (also see Vygotsky and zone of proximal development in study unit 1). The arts, especially music and dance, are prominent in various African and international cultures and therefore also offer opportunities for creating learning environments in which learners from diverse backgrounds feel welcome and respected. When foundation phase learners are able to demonstrate their understanding through the arts, we also promote and accommodate their innate love of music and movement while also adding elements of exploration, discovery fun and play in our classroom. Ultimately, through arts integration, foundation phase learners will develop their problem solving and critical thinking skills through engagement in authentic learning activities which foster the ability to become aware of the various ways in which we are not only connected to each other but our world while drawing attention to the ways in which the various subjects in our curriculum are connected. This is especially appropriate in the foundation phase as the CAPS is also written in a way which encourages teachers to draw links between various subjects by integrating various subjects. When we utilise arts integration in our teaching, we can consequently create learning environments in which learners can develop holistically, experience personal and social wellbeing while fostering creativity and imagination by drawing on their innate love of music, movement, arts and curiosity (also see Reggio Emelia teaching approach in study unit 2)

Playing With Music

“Let’s go driving. Buckle up, start the car, and off we go. Where shall we drive today?” These are my words during a weekly early childhood music session as I give a laminated “steering wheel” to each child in preparation for the next song. Missie, age 3½, grabs her steering wheel enthusiastically and begins to sing “driving, driving, a car, shopping, shopping, a car.” She is only approximating the lyrics, but her sol–mi (falling minor third) is as perfectly in tune as any Kodály music educator could hope for. Missie’s mum and I are amazed, and we both compliment her on her beautiful singing.

This moment is particularly special because Missie has recently been assessed as having a moderate developmental delay. The music group that Missie and her mum attend caters specifically to children with disabilities and their families. Missie and her mother have been enthusiastic participants in the group for 9 months, and the driving song, composed by me after observing the strong interest in cars shown by several children in the group, has been sung every session. Each week when I get out the steering wheels, the children cluster enthusiastically around me, then “drive” off around the room, often vocalizing the sounds of engines and car horns. The children have gradually become familiar with the song’s structure, which involves stopping for red traffic lights and moving off

when the (imaginary) green light appears. However, this is the first time a child in the group has actually sung along with the song, so it is a momentous occasion. I began to share this song with the children as a foundational musical experience based on their interest in transport, rather than with any assessable musical outcomes in my program. My aim was for the children to respond actively to the song in playful ways according to their individual interests and capabilities. Their responses have been varied but always enthusiastic. Some have stood still or been held by parents while exploring the steering wheel for many sessions. Some have hovered on the sidelines, watching the other children intently. Others have moved energetically around the room, making vehicle sounds, absorbed in their pretend play. Over the weeks and months, children have experimented with “driving” in different directions, following friends, driving alongside their mums, or moving just ahead of mum, pretending that she is a passenger. As the song has become familiar, a range of musical responses have also become evident. Most of the children

have adapted the speed of their movements to the tempo of the song and their styles of movement to its beat and melodic structure. And today, the song has actually been sung by a child, with accurate pitch and rhythm. In short, through responding playfully to this song, the children have shown over time their developing awareness and skills in relation to beat, tempo, form, and pitch. They have created their own musical learning, using play to build their own curriculum. Although the above vignette describes music making in an early intervention center, similar musical experiences can be observed in any early childhood setting. In my work over many years as an early childhood music educator and researcher, I have become firmly convinced that play is central to young children’s engagement with songs and musical experiences and that through play children can construct their own musical learning.

Concluding Thoughts

In adopting a play-based, child-centered approach to early childhood music education, we may not necessarily change the fundamental aspects of our program, but we will change the way we approach them with children. We will still be singing, moving, and exploring sound. We will still be providing rich resources for children so that they experience a variety of musical elements and genres. The children will still be developing awareness and skills in singing and playing instruments. However, our pathways may be different in that we will structure

1. Inclusivity in the Foundation Phase

Music education offers unique opportunities for addressing inclusive goals in education. Although the focus of this module is not inclusive education and special needs as such, it is important to be aware that, although you might one day teach in a mainstream school, your learners will still have diverse needs, and some might have unique needs in terms of learning strategies, movement abilities, traumatic or adverse childhood experiences, poverty, attention deficit challenges, dyslexia not yet diagnosed or in a mild degree, might fall on the autism spectrum or experience hindered sight or hearing.

Through music, we can address these unique needs of our learners by encouraging learners to engage with all their senses when engaging with music (hear the sound, feel the instrument or vibration, move to the music, smell the wood smell of instruments, see the instruments, look at images), using various types of movements, singing in various languages, playing different games, including various patterns during rhythmic and body percussion activities to enable all learners to experience success (a group could only play on the beat while others play rhythmic patterns such as Taa Ti-Ti- Ti-Ti Taa, etc.). The structure and patterns of music can also have a soothing effect on our learners as it is somewhat predictive in that sense. Also, consider how you can create a welcoming, safe space for your learners through music and fun music activities. A space where everyone is welcome and valued. Where different abilities are celebrated. In the Foundation Phase especially, it is paramount that our learners feel cared for if they are to have meaningful TL experiences and be open for learning new skills, acquiring new knowledge and moving outside of their comfort zones (think zone of proximal development).

Inclusivity, however, goes beyond accommodating physical or cognitive and learning-related challenges. Inclusivity is also largely about ensuring that every learner feels equal in your class. We need to ensure that every learner, regardless of religion, race or socioeconomic status, feels welcome and able. Consequently, we have to take care when selecting the songs and music that we will use in our classrooms. We also have to consider the types of activities that we present. It is important to ensure that, when working with South African indigenous songs and games, for example, that these are presented in an authentic manner – played by the correct rules, words pronounced correctly, meaning of the game shared with learners. Pease note that if you are not sure about the context or pronunciation that you can ask one of the learners from the class to teach a song that they grew up with, to the class. This will contribute toward learners feeling proud of their heritage, fostering appreciation of different socio-cultural heritages and music as well as fostering increased self-esteem and confidence among our learners. This also works toward doing away with hierarchies where some musics are seen as more important than others (Western art or classical music, for example, is not more valuable or more important than indigenous or contemporary commercial music).

I want to encourage you to continuously consider ways that you can address various social and political agendas and inequalities in your teaching by advocating for equality, inclusion, appreciation and acceptance. To this end, it is also important that you learn about the backgrounds of your learners. Some might, due to religious reasons, not be comfortable with or able to engage with secular music or certain dances. Furthermore, we need to be aware of our learners’ interests. It is a misconception that Foundation Phase learners will enjoy engaging with or even know certain folk songs or nursery rhymes. We need to learn about what music learners want to engage with. What songs do they listen to at home or during break-time? What songs do they enjoy singing? We need to utilise these in our teaching. Our teaching-learning and assessment strategies and content must, first-and-foremost, accommodate our learners’ needs and interests. Only then will we be able to facilitate activities that not only support them in learning new skills, but that they will ultimately enjoy and find meaningful.

Music elements

Music elements are the building blocks in music. Through combining the different elements, we can create music. Tone refers to a specific music element that gives music its characteristic sound and through which we differentiate between music and noise.

The basic elements of music are:

• duration (of tone) – including music concepts of beat, meter, rhythm and tempo
• pitch (of tone)
• intensity (of tone)
• quality (of tone)
• Texture

Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development

Erikson’s developmental theory for the stages of psychosocial development specifically draws focus to the influence of social interaction and relationships on learning. As foundation phase educators, we cannot disregard the importance of fostering relationships with our learners as well as learners having opportunities to foster meaningful relationships with their peers and the influence these relationships have on their learning. Meaningful relationships are crucial if our learners are to feel safe, valued, supported and cared for in our classrooms. It is, therefore, also necessary to have some knowledge of learning and developmental theories that emphasise and support this

With reference to Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development, foundation phase learners are at the fourth stage of industry vs. inferiority (ages 5-11). During this stage, children develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities through social interaction and relationships. Children, therefore, strongly rely on feedback from peers, teachers and parents to feel proud and confident about their abilities and achievements. As foundation phase educators, we, therefore, have an important role to play in our learners’ lives with regards to providing them with sufficient extrinsic motivation and encouragement with the aim of fostering feelings of competence, promoting their self-esteem and confidence. If children do not experience encouragement and praise for their successes during this stage of their development, they might consequently experience self-doubt and low self-esteem. During this fourth stage of their psychosocial development, foundation phase learners learn the skills required to cope with challenges as they develop their sense of competence, believe in their abilities and deal with and master various tasks and successfully solve problems

Piaget’s cognitive development theory

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development emphasises the notion that children learn by interacting with the world and that they build new knowledge based on existing skills and knowledge (prior knowledge). Piaget argues that one of the most important aspects to consider when referring to children’s cognitive development is to acknowledge that children think differently than adults. According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, foundation phase children fall between both the pre-operational stage (age 2-6; i.e. grade R) and the concrete operational stage (age 7-11; i.e. grade 1-3)

Vygotsky and the zone of proximal developmen

Vygotsky’s developmental theory draws attention to the socio-cultural factors that influence cognitive development and therefore emphasises the importance of social interaction and language development. According to Vygotsky, one cannot fully understand a child’s learning needs and developmental stage without taking their social environment as well as the influence of social factors on a personal level into consideration. Therefore, Vygotsky’s sociocultural view of cognitive development emphasises the interaction between individuals and their environments (Schunk, 2016; Woolfolk, 2016)

Vygotsky believed that the social environment influences cognition through tools and that adults teach these tools to children who then internalise these. Hence, cognitive change is a result of cultural tools acquired through social interactions and from internalisation and mental transformation (Schunk, 2016). Because of the emphasis Vygotsky places on the transference of knowledge within socio-cultural settings, the importance of language cannot be disregarded in cognitive development. Vygotsky believed that cultural development and thinking is mastered and transmitted through symbols relating to symbols and tools such as language, counting and writing and that it is an integral part of self-regulative abilities.

Musical development in the foundation phase

By the time children enter school, they have developed the ability to selectively listen, and directed listening increases on-task behaviour and listening duration (Sims, 2005; Werner, 2007). This is an extremely important development because it allows children to focus on specific musical aspects. Another form of "selective" listening also develops during this period, with children showing decreased openness to music of non-Western cultures (Gembris, 2006). In addition to the ability to selectively listen, children also develop other abilities during middle childhood. In terms of specific skills, children's sense of tonality increases, along with the ability to more accurately match pitch (Kenney, 1997). The advancements in motor coordination during the preschool period allow for increased fine and gross motor coordination during middle childhood, as well as an increased ability to demonstrate choreographed movements (Huang, 2007; Miyamoto, 2007). Increased motor control also leads to the ability to play certain instruments, especially simple melodic instruments such as the xylophone or keyboard (Frostik et al., n.d.). Singing abilities improve dramatically during the middle childhood years, with increases in both range and accuracy noted (Kim, 2000). By the age of 6 or 7 years, children have a vocal range of approximately one octave, with all its steps (Gembris, 2006). Improvements in rhythmic abilities are noted as well; school-aged children show the ability to demonstrate rhythms in an increasing number of modalities, including clapping, tapping, moving, and chanting (Huang, 2007; Loong & Lineburgh, 2000). Perhaps two of the most significant developments to occur during middle childhood are in the areas of coordination and music reading. First and foremost, children show an increasing ability to accurately coordinate various musical aspects (Warrener, 1985). This allows for greater participation in a variety of musical endeavors. Finally, starting around the age of 5, children develop the ability to associate sound with symbols (Miyamoto, 2007). Therefore, it has been suggested that children can begin to note-read around the age of 6 (Kenney, 1997)