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M VAN WYK
Blog #3.5
11 Nov 2021, 12:37
- Verduidelik kortliks wat sistiese fibrose is en hoe dornase-alfa werk om die probleem op te los.
Sistiese fibrose is genetiese metaboliese siekte (ÔDNase 1) wat lei tot verlaagde sekresies in verskeie organe. Ergste simptome sigbaar in lugweë. Mukus is dik en taai en lei tot herhaaldelike bakteriële infeksies. Liggaam nie vermoë om mukus op te ruim.
Dornase-alfa (rhDNase) inhalasies hidroliseer proteïene in brongiale mukus om vloeibaarheid te verbeter.Baie nuwe en duur behandeling.
- Verduidelik kortliks wat neonatale respiratoriese noodsindroom is, wat die algemene behandelingstrategieë behels en hoe kortisoon en eksogene surfaktante werk om die probleem op te los.
Ook bekend as hialienmembraan siekte. Kom by premature babas voor. Oppervlakaktiewe stof wat lugweë bedek en noodsaaklik is vir gaswisseling, word eers kort voor geboorte gevorm. Longe kan dus platval-(atelektasis) → dood. Intensiewe monitering van respiratoriese en sirkulatoriese status noodsaaklik.
Behandeling behels:
- Suurstof om oksiginering te verseker
- Ventilator gebruik vir positiewe druk
- Verhoogde suurstof oor lang termyn lei tot retinale skade en blindheid
- Gm: eksogene surfaktant: beraktant, poraktant alfa
- Kortikosteroïede soos betametasoon –word ook profilakties aan moeder voor kraam toegedien om baba se surfaktant produksie te inisieer
- Wat is die rol van suurstofterapie by neonatale respiratoriese noodsindroom? Wat behels die gevare van suurstoftoksisiteit?
Suurstof (by kamertemperatuur met lug vermeng) word toegedien ten einde oksigenering te verseker. ’n Kontinue positiewe druk (soos met ’n ventilator verkry) verbeter respirasie en hou die alveoli oop om kollabering te verhoed. Dit is van kritiese belang dat die arteriële parsiële suurstofdruk voortdurend gemonitor word.
Voldoende suurstof is ’n basiese vereiste vir normale respirasie. Terapeuties word dit algemeen toegedien om hipoksie (vanweë verskeie oorsake) om te keer of te verhoed. Wanneer verhoogde suurstof in oormatige hoeveelhede en/of oor ’n te lang tydperk geïnhaleer word, het dit egter toksiese effekte. Paradoksaal veroorsaak suurstoftoksisiteit onder andere verminderde gaswisseling, hipoksie en, in uiterste gevalle, die dood. By neonate kan dit verder retinale skade en blindheid veroorsaak.
- Verduidelik kortliks wat neonatale apnee is en hoe die metielxantiene werk om die probleem op te los. Watter metielxantiene word gebruik?
By pasgebore en premature babas. Asemhalingsentrum in brein nog nie volledig ontwikkel om voordurende asemhaling te stimuleer nie. Apnee met bradikardie duur langer as 15 sekondes en kom herhaaldelik voor. Kan lei tot hipoksie en neurale skade.
Behandeling behels:
• Metielxantiene bv. Kaffeïen, teofillien IV vir enkele weke. Dit stimuleer SSS. Suurstofterapie soms aangedui. Suurstofvlakke in bloed voortdurend gemonitor.
Blog #3.4
10 Nov 2021, 15:57
- Wat is die algemene oorsake van rinitis en rinoree?
Rinitis (inflammasie van die neusslymvlies) en rinoree (loopneus) is gewoonlik die gevolg van allergieë, verkoue, chemiese of geneesmiddelskade, koue lug of fisiese skade.
- Watter geneesmiddelgroepe kan by die behandeling van rinoree gebruik word? Noem voorbeelde by elke groep.
Alfa 1 Agoniste bv. Fenielefrien, Efedrien en Oksimetasonien.
Anti-histamiene bv. Difenhidramien, Prometasien, Loratidien en Rupatidien.
Kortikosteroïede bv. Beklometasoon, Budesonied, Flutikasoon, Mometasoon en Siklesonied.
Mukolitika bv. Asetielsisteïen, Broomheksien, Karbosisteïen en Mesna.
Mastselstabiliseerders bv. Natriumchromoglikaat en Ketotifen.
Antibiotika bv. Mupirosien en Neomisien.
Diverse ander middels bv. Stoom, Soutoplossings en Vlugtige olies soos Mentol/Bloekom– olie.
- Hoe verskil die dekongestante onderling ten opsigte van werkingsmeganisme en werkingsduur? Hoe word hulle tipies toegedien?
Simpatomimetiese agente, spesifieke alfa 1 agoniste, veroorsaak vasokonstruksie van mukosale bloedvate en verlaag edeem van nasale mukosa.
- kortwerkende middels (4 tot 6 ure), bv. efedrien, fenielefrien, propielheksidrien, nafasolien en tetrahidrosolien
- intermediêrwerkende middels (8 tot 10 ure), bv. silometasolien
- langwerkende middels (12 ure), bv. oksimetasolien
Die a-agoniste word baie algemeen gebruik in die topikale doseervorme (neussproeie, druppels en jellies) en inhalasie van vlugtige verbindings om dekongestie van die neusslymvlies teweeg te bring. Die neussproeie versprei die geneesmiddel die beste en word verkies. Die druppels loop maklik deur tot in die farinks, vanwaar dit in die SVK beland en meer sistemiese newe-effekte kan veroorsaak, maar word nogtans soms verkies by kinders met kleiner neusgange.
- Wat is rhinitis medicamentosa? Hoe word dit behandel?
Rhinitis medicamentosa (privinisme) en terugslagrinitis kan met oordosering met lokale preparate ontstaan. Privinisme is ’n toestand wat ontstaan na chroniese behandeling met dekongestante, waar die permanente vasokonstriksie met gebrekkige lokale bloedvoorsiening aanleiding gee tot skade van die neusslymvliese met permanente inflammasie en swelling, asook ’n afregulering van die a-adrenergiese reseptore op die bloedvate, sodat dit onresponsief raak teenoor die a-agoniste. Tagifilakse (l-noradrenalien-stooruitputting) kan deur die indirekwerkende middels ontlok word.Die imidasoliene gee, veral in babas en jong kinders, soms aanleiding tot sentrale onderdrukking wat tot ‘n koma kan lei.
Dit is verder belangrik om elke gebruiker van topikale preparate te waarsku teen die gevaar van privinisme met oorgebruik. Dit is hoofsaaklik vir korttermynbehandeling bedoel. Persone met privinisme behoort behandeling te staak en tydelik lokale kortikoïedterapie te ontvang. Soms ervaar persone wat die dekongestante chronies gebruik het dat hulle ’n toe neus ontwikkel wanneer hulle die terapie staak. Vir hierdie persone kan eers die een neusgang “gespeen” word, sodat daar darem nog een oop neusgang is. Wanneer die “gespeende” neusgang hertstel het, kan die tweede een ook “gepeen” word. Daar is ook orale preparate beskikbaar, maar hierdie doseervorm gee aanleiding tot meer newe-effekte en het 'n stadiger aanvang van werking.
- Hoe verskil die eerste en tweede generasie antihistamiene ten opsigte van die werkingsmeganismes waarvolgens rinitis en rinoree verlig word? Wat is die voordele van die tweede generasie antihistamiene? Waarom behoort hulle nie gebruik te word om verkouerinitis te verlig nie?
Die eerste generasie antihistaminika is multipotente kompeterende antagoniste en blokkeer ook muskariniese reseptore. Antimuskariniese middels verminder die sekresies van die hoër en die laer lugweë, sodat dit dikwels by verkouepreparate ingesluit word om rinoree op te klaar. Hulle kan egter sedasie veroorsaak en dus konsentrasievermoë negatief beïnvloed.
Die tweede generasie antihistamiene blokkeer nie muskariniese reseptore nie en is bruikbaar by lang- of korttermynbehandeling van allergiese rhinitis (voordeel). Aangesien histamien geen rol by verkouerinitisnie speel nie, maar wel bradikinien, help hierdie middels nie om verkouerinitis op te klaar nie.
- Wanneer is kortikosteroïede, anti-allergiese middels, mesna en normale soutoplossing bruikbaar en hoe word dit toegedien?
Kortikosteroïede is bruikbaar vir kroniese asma, allergiese rhinitis, neuspoliepe, inflammatoriese rhinitis, en omkering van rhinitis medicamentosa. Dit word topikaal toegedien deur neussproeie.
Anti-allergiese middels is bruikbaar vir profilakse vir antigeen asma en oefenings- geïnduseerde asma. Dit word ook as ‘n neussproei toegedien.
Mesna is bruikbaar as slymverdunners by taai nasale mucus. Dit word ook as ‘n neussproei toegedien.
Normale soutoplossing (salien) is as neusdruppel baie veilig en effektief. Dit bevogtig die droë, geïnflammeerde neusslymvliese soos tydens verkoue, droë weer, allergieë (hooikoors), neusbloeding, oorgebruik van dekongestante en ander irritasies.
Blog #3.2
2 Nov 2021, 11:37
· Gee jou eie definisie van COLS.
Kroniese obstruktiewe longsiekte, of KOLS, beskryf 'n groep long-toestande wat dit moeilik maak om lug uit die longe leeg te maak omdat die lugweë vernou geraak het.
· Beskryf kortliks die voorgestelde etiologie en patofisiologie van chroniese brongitis en emfiseem.
Kroniese brongitis:
Non-spesifieke obstruktiewe lugwegsiekte, gekenmerk deur:
- Verhoogde mukussekresie
- Verlaagde mukosiliêre opruiming
- Gereelde bakteriële lugweginfeksies
- Strukturele veranderinge in brongiale wande
- Kroniese hoes a.g.v. taai mucus
Emfiseem:
- Ontwikkel dikwels a.g.v. rook en irritante.
- Emfiseem is ‘n onomkeerbare verwyding van respiratoriese brongioli en alveoli, a.g.v. strukturele skade.
- Lug word in longe vasgevang – moeilike uitaseming.
- Verlaagde kappilêre bloedvate – belemmer gaswisseling.
· Watter tipes terapie word ingesluit om ’n COLS-pasiënt te behandel?
- Staking van rook is noodsaaklik
- Immunisering teen influenza
- Behandel met brongodilatore
- Verdun mukus deur rehidrering en stoom
- Suurstof inhalasie
- Gereelde ligte tot matige oefening
- In spesiale gevalle, behandel met antibiotika, medikasie en sjirurgie
· Waarom is ipratropium meer effektief by die behandeling van chroniese brongitits as by die behandeling van brongiale asma?
Ipratropium orale inaseming word gebruik om hyg, kortasem, hoes en bors-benoudheid/styfheid te voorkom by mense met chroniese obstruktiewe longsiekte (COPD), bv. Kroniese brongitis. Dit is vir langdurige gebruik, en nie vir onmiddelike asma aanvalle nie.
· In watter opsig hou die skeletspier-effekte van teofillien voordele in by die behandeling van COLS?
Teofillien versterk die kontraksie van diafragma skeletspiere, wat ventilasie respons verbeter en hipoksie en dispnee in KOLS-pasiënte verminder. Dit tree op as ‘n direkte brongodilator en gladdespier ontspanning.
· Wat is die rol van suurstofterapie by COLS?
Hierdie behandeling verhoog die hoeveelheid suurstof wat jou longe ontvang en aan jou bloed lewer. Dit verbeter jou asemhaling en verminder dis simptome van KOLS, bv. beperkte lugvloei, swak gaswisseling, ingekorte lewenskwaliteit, verhoogde angs, hipoksie en selfs dood.
M van Wyk
22 Sep 2021, 11:48
Blog#2.4
- What do you understand by the term “endothelium-dependent” vasodilation? Explain.
Endothelium-dependent vasodilators such as e.g. Acetylcholine and bradykinin increase the intracellular calcium levels in the endothelium leading to the synthesis of NO an endothelial-derived relaxing factor (EDRF) in the endothelium. From there, NO moves to the vascular smooth muscle to cause its vaso-relaxing effect.
- When we talk about the NOS enzyme, what is meant by “constitutive” and “inducible” enzymes and what are the pathological and physiological implications thereof?
Constitutive enzymes are enzymes that are synthesized on a constant basis regardless of the physiological demand, so they have a greater physiological and pathological implication because they occur permanently in an area.
Induced enzymes are enzymes that occur after a substance has been added, so the enzyme is not present before the substance, which means that something has to be secreted by the body before that enzyme takes effect, so the implications are smaller.
- Explain how NO contributes to the fatal pathology of septic shock.
Sepsis is a systemic inflammatory response caused by an infection. Components present on bacteria such as endotoxins, cytokines and tumor necrosis factor-α induce the formation of iNOS in macrophages, smooth muscle cells, neutrophils etc. This NO formation in a wide area leads to severe hypotension, shock and in some cases death.
- Which autacoids’ mechanism of action depends on effects on the guanylyl cyclase-cGMP system?
Nitric oxide.
- NO may be toxic to the cell. Which mechanisms are available to the body to counter this detrimental effect of NO?
For example, it prevents too much NO from being present.
- Name a way in which NO can act pro-inflammatory. Give examples of where it will have advantages or disadvantages.
Response to injury or infection leads to the activation of leukocytes and release of inflammatory mediators. This causes an increase in iNOS levels and activity in leukocytes. The NO as well as peroxynitrates produced are an important microbial agent. NO also plays an important role in the function of the immune cell TH1, which synthesizes NO in response to an unknown substance. This is a good protective response especially if iNOS is inhibited. NO also stimulates the synthesis of prostaglandins (activates COX2). NO's vasodilating effect and the effects of COX2 play a role in inflammation where it causes the red color of skin, increases vascular permeability and edema in acute inflammation. A disadvantage of NO in acute and chronic inflammation is that excessive NO production can cause tissue injury.
- In which possible neurological and psychiatric diseases is NO involved?
Stroke, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Parkinson's disease which are a cause of overactivation of NMDA receptors leading to excessive synthesis of NO and thus excitotoxic neuronal death.
M van Wyk
22 Sep 2021, 10:07
Blog#2.2
- In any disease conditions that prevent increased blood pressure (hypertension) and it increases the feeling of thirst, which stimulates the desire for salt, stimulates the release of other hormone involved by fluid retention. It also finds heart faluire. The overactive RAAS causes an increase in angiotensinogen levels. Too much angiotensin can cause the body to retain too much fluid or to have elevated blood pressure levels not caused by other problems. High angiotensin levels can also cause the heart to grow, leading toheart failure.
- Drugs which blocks ACE will also lead to the inhibition of bradykinin breakdown. Increased bradykinin concentrations cause bradykinin 2 receptor mediated bronchoconstriction (a vagal cough reflex) which cause the negative side-effect of a dry, irritating cough. Drugs which act specifically on angiotensin receptors will not inhibit bradykinin breakdown and thus will not have this adverse effect because of increased bradykinin.
- ACE inhibitors firstly block the conversion of angiotensin I to angiotensin II. Angiotensin II type I receptors are also blocked. This leads to vasodilation instead of vasoconstriction which leads to a decrease in peripheral resistance and BP. Aldosterone secretion decreases which leads to less salt and water retention and more excretion which lowers cardiac preload, decrease cardiac output and decrease BP. Left ventricular hypertrophy is also reversed. ACE inhibitors also inhibit bradykinin breakdown. Increased bradykinin concentrations, increase prostaglandin synthesis which increase arterial vasodilation, lowers peripheral resistance and lowers BP. This is all therapeutically useful in hypertension.
- Angiotensin II receptor antagonist. The action on the AT1 receptors is direct, but the action on aldosterone is indirect.
- Kinins cause vasodilation, edema, and contraction of smooth muscle, as well as pain and hyperalgesia through stimulation of C-fibers. They are formed from high and low molecular weight kininogens by the action of serial protease kallikreïen in plasma and peripheral tissues.
- B1 and B2 bradykinin receptors.
- These peptides cause effects such as diuresis, natriuresis, vasodilation, and inhibition of aldosterone synthesis and renin secretion as a circulating hormone, and thereby play an important role in regulating blood pressure and blood volume. Increases Glomerular Filtration and Na Excretion. Decreases Renin release and Aldosterone mechanism (decreases Na reabsorption) and inhibits angiotensin II. It can prevent edema and hypertension.
- It is a neutral endopeptidase which is responisble the breakdown of natiuretic peptides in the kidney liver and lungs. Inhibition of this increases circulating levels of ANP and BNP and thus causes natriuresis and diureses. (Sacubitril)
- Vasodilators: PGI2 & NO; Vasoconstrictors: Endothelin - ET1, ET2, ET.
M van Wyk
21 Sep 2021, 12:41
Blog#2.1
Pathology:
Migraine is a primary brain disorder most likely involving an ion channel in the aminergic brain stem nuclei (←), a form of neurovascular headache in which neural events result in dilation of blood vessels aggravating the pain and resulting in further nerve activation.
Treatment:
Ergot derivatives are highly specific for migraine pain. Ergotamine tartrate is available for oral, sublingual, rectal suppository and inhaler use. It is often combined with caffeine (100 mg caffeine for each 1 mg ergotamine tartrate) to facilitate absorption of the ergot alkaloid.
Ergot alkaloids: Here we can look at Ergotamine and Ergonovine as good examples. These drugs block alpha agonist vasoconstriction and cause a marked smooth muscle contraction. The ergot derivates have mixed partial agonist effects at 5-HT2 receptors and at alpha adrenoceptors.. The effects mentioned above helps to reduce the vasodilation which causes the migraine.
Triptans: Sumatriptan is a good example to look at here. Triptans are the first line drug therapy for acute severe migraines. Triptans should not be used in patients with coronary artery disease because they have the ability to cause coronary vasospasms. These drugs are selective agonists for 5-HT, 1D and 5-HT, 1B receptors. On the presynaptic trigeminal nerve ends they activate these receptors to inhibit the release of the vasodilating peptides.
Beta-blockers: Not for acute attacks, but only for prophylaxis.
Anti-inflammatory analgesics: These drugs only control the pain of the migraine and don’t resolve the migraine. Aspirin is a good example.
Lasmiditan: Highly selective 5-HT 1F receptor agonist which is effective in treating migraines. This agent is much more cardiovascular safe than the triptans. This drug reduces the trigeminal nerve stimulation-induced plasma and plasma protein extravasation in dura vessels. This drug is used in acute migraines.
Calcium channel blockers: For prophylaxis only.